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From Genesis to Revelation: The Evolution of Backgammon and theFactors
Abstract:Backgammon,A Global Cultural Phenomenon
The ancient game of backgammon is aninveterate recreational pursuit for millions of people throughout the FourCorners of the
globe. The fundamental format of thegame, is essentially a contest between two opponents who each race 15checkersaround a
prescribed track of twenty-four pips,framed within a rectangular board. The first contestant to remove all theirpieces from the board
secures victory. The movement of thecheckers is governed by chance engendered by the numbers generated by aroll of two die.
The game enjoys no political orlinguisticboundaries: from the deserts of Arabia to the rainforests of the Amazonthe game's
popularity encompasses every continent.Indeed, it is not uncommon to find scientists based in Antarctica ensconcedin a
backgammon battle against geographicallydistant opponents thanks to the advent of the Internet game servers. Thisarticle
attempts to provide a concise overviewof the evolution of the game from its nebulous origins in the Middle Eastto the virtual
gaming arenas of the 3rd millenniumA.D. In addition, the piece will attempt to assess the historicsocio-dramaticfactors, which
have influenced the popularity of thisfascinating game.
'We go out in the world and take ourchances
The Genesisof Backgammon
Recreational board-games employing skilland/or chance are an almost universal feature throughout the panoply ofglobal
civilization. The existence of suchgames can be traced back thousands of millennia B.C. to the ancient culturesof the Middle East
and Asia. However, the specific originsand the dates of their invention remains shrouded in the mists of time.The answer to the
question 'why were board games originallyinvented?' has proven to be an even more elusive 'Grail' quest for manyhistorians.
Various commentators(2) have suggestedthat the concept of board-games was originally derived from other gamesof chance,
which in turn had their origins in thedivinatory use of the arrow head. Other historians perceive their originto lie in the realm of the
occult.(3) In general, commentatorsattribute the origins of backgammon to the ancient board-games played bythe Egyptians,
Sumerians, Romans and Persians.
A number of wall-paintings discoveredwithin various Egyptian temples and tombs contain illustrations of personsplaying
board-games. The illustrations havebeen typically dated at around 2500 B.C. One such game with similaritiesto the modern
physical format of backgammon is thegame of Sen't or Senat. Actual game-boards and assorted gaming paraphernaliawere
discovered in a number of Egyptian tombsdating from the First Dynasty to the Twelfth Dynasty (3000 - 1788 B.C.).(4)Though the
physical design of the games varied,they invariably fell into the classification of 'race' board-games. Theformat of the boards
typically comprised of a matrix of squarecells, some of which bore distinctive insignia. Relics of playing piecesaccompanied some
boards though the number of piecescomprisinga full set is unknown. The original rules of Senet remain a mystery asno
documentary record of authentic ruleshas been discovered to date. Despite the impossibility of reconstructingthe games from
incomplete relics and two-dimensionalimages from tomb walls, a number of enthusiasts have attempted to completethe arcane
jigsaw.(5) It should be noted however,that no evidence exists that the game involved the use of 'dice'.
In 1926 a joint expedition between theBritish Museum and the University of Pennsylvania Museum, led by the Britisharchaeologist
Sir Leonard Woolley discovered fourwooden game-boards amongst the treasure troves of Ur al Chaldees, theancientcultural
centre of Sumer. Two of the board-gamesconsisting of a matrix of twelve squares have been dated at around 2600B.C. Sets of
'checkers' and two sets of threetetrahedraldie were also discovered at the site.(6) These 'Royal Games of Ur' areregarded as
strong candidates as the harbingersof modern backgammon though the precise rules of the game remain unknown.(7)
Lacta aleaest. - The die is cast
The legacy of the Roman Empire containsartifacts of the board-game 'Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum', now popularlyknown as 'the
game of the twelve lines'. Examplesof leather game-boards(8) have been found dating from around the secondcentury A.D.,
though literary references provideevidenceof the game's popularity prior to this period.(9) Interestingly, some boardswere
discovered with sets of 30 'checkers'consisting of 15 ivory, and 15 ebony pieces(10). Evidence suggests thatchecker movement
was governed by roll of three die, andexamples of game-boards dated around 600 A.D., have been found accompaniedby a set of
six cubic die.(11) The game was possiblyderived from the Egyptian Senat possessing a similar matrix of 3 x 12points,and
Murray(12) is of the opinion that thegame is a replica of the Greek 'Kubeia', which Plato assigns to Egyptianorigin.
Around the first century A.D., a newvariant of Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum appeared in Rome in which the 3rdrow of 12 points was
omitted. The generic term of 'Alea'which originally meant - 'the art of gambling with dice' - became attachedto the new variant.
Documentary evidence illustrates thatAlea had become a popular pastime by the First century AD, at which timeit was the favored
game of Emperor Claudius who is reputedto have written a manuscript on the game.(13) As the game increased inpopularity the
generic term of 'Tabula', meaning -'Board' - became common currency, though the two names coexisted long intothe new
millennium. The reformation of thegame-boardto 24 points makes Alea a strong candidate as the first true precursorof
backgammon. Documentary evidence(14)demonstrates that the game originally commenced by the players castingdice to enter
their 'checkers' on to the board, acharacteristic featured in the rules of many contemporary backgammonvariantsincluding
Acey-Deucy, and Puff. However, followingdiffusion of the game throughout Asia and Europe, variations in the initialstarting
positions of the game were manifest.
In Persia, the game of Nard was playedon a board of similar design to Alea, the significant difference beingthe use of 2 die to
govern the movement of checkers. Setup of the modern game is identical to backgammon with play commencing froma fixed
arrangement of the checkers on the board.References to Nard are found in the Babylonian Talmud which was compiledaround 500
A.D. Murray(15) notes that popularetymologyascribed the invention of the game to Ardeshir (aka Artaxerxes), the founderof the
Sassanian dynasty in 224 A.D. The gamealso became known as 'Nardshir' throughout the Middle East (aka Nardeshir,and
Nard-i-Shir). Nard was a generic Persianname for wood or wooden products, whilst shir means lion. Murray considersthat the
suffix 'shir' is attributable to thefact that the checkers of Nard were often carved in the shape of lion heads,though an alternative
interpretation is that the suffixacquiredcommon currency through the association of Ardeshir with the game. Withintwenty years,
Ardeshir (224-241) created a vast empirethat stretched as far as the Indus, which may account for a reference byAl-Ya Qubi(16)
that, professes Nard to be an Indianinvention.(17) Al-Ya Qubi attributes a cosmological symbolism to the designof the board and
its appurtenances:
'The board represents a year; each sidecontains 12 points for the months of the year; the twenty-four pointsrepresentthe hours
in a day; the 30 checkers representdays of the month; the sum of opposing sides of the die represent the 7days of the week; the
contrasting colors of each set ofcheckersrepresent day and night.'
Ardeshir's son Shapur I (241-272)continuedthe expansion of the Sassanian Empire, which lead to several militarycampaigns
against Rome around 259 A.D. The contactbetween the two cultures may have provided an opportunity for theintroductionof the
rules of Nard into the Roman game ofAlea. However, the tangled web of inter-cultural relations set in thedistantpast precludes an
accurate assignment of credit for theoriginal invention of backgammon's immeadiate ancestor.
Dissemination,Diffusion and Metamorphosis
The renowned historian Sir John Myersnoted that much of our written history concerns the documentation ofchange.(18)The history
of board-games clearly illustrates adistinct paradigm whereby a parochially successful game is rapidlydisseminatedfrom its
source of invention to neighboringcentresof culture.(19) The opportunities for dissemination increase with theenhancedmobility of
the populace, for example throughdevelopingtrade routes and political empire building. As board-games become entrenchedin
the social fabric of neighboring culturesthe opportunities for further dissemination on an increasingly widergeographicscale
accrue. Developments in transport andmilitary technology, such as the utilization of horses and horse drawnvehicles by the various
militaristic dynasties of Asia and theLevant, facilitated the rapid promulgation of social paradigms acrossdisparatepolitical and
theological ideologies.
The dissemination of secular conceptswas generally confined to the oral tradition prior to the invention ofthe printing press. As
board games became distributed far andwide from their original source, so the opportunities for modificationincreased. It is highly
likely that the inherent complexitiesin the translation of the spoken word, from one language to another,facilitateda diffusion of the
oral rules of games. In the culturalmelting pots of the Medieval Middle East, the intricate nuances of myriadlanguages and dialects
engendered significant opportunitiesfor disparity in the interpretation of the rules. Further incrementalchangesin the minutiae of the
rules would be inevitable as thetraditionswere passed down intergenerationally by word of mouth.
The material format of the games, howeverwas less prone to accidental modification as gaming boards tended to beconstructed
of durable and easily replicatedmaterialssuch as stone, wood or leather. It is likely that these factors accountfor the rich diversity in
backgammon variants which share thecommon physical format of a board divided into four quadrants eachcontaining6 pips, and
two sets of 15 distinctly coloredcheckers.The evolution and metamorphosis of recreational games is a common cultural
phenomena; for example the contemporarygame of chess is significantly different to the modern game of Japanesechess yet both
variants share the same ancestralunderpinningsin the ancient game of Chinese chess.(20)
Exodus ofBackgammon
The exact origins of a particular gameand the historic passage from its source to distant communities may beobscured by the filter
of time. However, the name adopted bythe subsequent players for the game may provide a valuable clue to assistin determining
the game's immediate cultural source.The legacies left by ancient civilizations of the 'Old World' have proveda veritable treasure
trove of information. Artifactsdiscoveredat various sites throughout Asia illustrate that board games formed asignificantcultural
component of life during those times.Far beyond the geographical boundaries of Egypt, Sumer, Persia and Rome,examples of
similar boards provide solid evidenceof the gradual progression of theie board-games northerly into Europe andeastwards
through Asia.
Conquering Roman legionaries transportedAlea to the farthest frontiers of the Roman Empire where the game'sfascinatingallure
was not lost on the local populace.Murray argues that the adoption of the generic Roman name of 'Tablula'(aka Tables), by local
cultures provides evidence that theexistence of these games was unfamiliar in Northern Europe prior to theRoman invasion.
Tabula also reached Arabia by Romanexpansion into the Middle East during the first century A.D.
By a similar modus operandi, board-gamespopular within the Muslim cultures of Arabia were disseminated to the localpopulace
under the aegis of the Muslim empire.However, the Arabs had probably first come into contact with the game ofNard after their
conquest of Persia in 631 A.D. Throughtrade routes and military campaigns, the game of Nard spread Northwardsinto Georgia
and Easterly to arrive in Northern Indiaduring Sassanian rule in Persia.(21) In turn the game spread from Indiato China where it had
become known as Shwan-liu (meaning'doublesix'),(22) by 700 A.D.
A major distinction between Tabula andNard was the latter's use of two die. The period of the European Crusadesaround the 12th
century facilitated further culturalinterchange and following the Crusaders return to Europe, the use of 2die for playing 'Tablula'
became increasingly common.
According to Murray, the modern versionof backgammon (as opposed to Tables) can be traced to the mid-17th Century.Murray
notes that Backgammon was distinguishedfrom Tables by virtue of the introduction of the contemporary norm ofplayingdoubles
twice.(23) It has been suggested thatthe modern term of 'Backgammon' was coined from the Welsh words 'bac' (akabach), and
'gammon (aka 'cammaun') which translateto 'little battle'. However, Jacoby and Crawford(24) note that the namecould be derived
from the 'Olde' English words 'baec'and 'gamen' meaning 'back game'. An equally plausible explanation couldbe the historic
tradition whereby backgammon boardswere found on the reverse side of Chess boards, hence - the game on theback (of the
chessboard).
Evolution &Standardization
Johann Gutenberg's invention of theprintingpress in 1436 marked a revolution in media communications. The printingpress greatly
facilitated the accurate communicationof ideas and concepts both within and between temporally and spatiallydistant communities.
As the printed word became accessibleto a progressively wider audience, the opportunity for accidental changediminished.
Furthermore, the dissemination of thewritten word was no longer a monopoly held by the ecclesiastical sector.As the
dissemination of ideas becameprogressivelyeasier and cheaper, authors were able to cater to the growing secularinterestsof the
populace. A raft of publications devotedto recreational games started to appear in Europe from the 15th centuryonwards.(25) The
historic social commentaries onbackgammonauthored by James Balmford;(26) and Daniel Bellamy;(27) and the moretechnical
works of Edmond Hoyle(28) provide ampledocumentary evidence of the popularity of the game in Britain from theMiddle Ages to
the era of the Industrial Revolution(29).
A sound argument can be made that theperiodic publication of new texts devoted to specific recreational gamesprovides a fairly
accurate indicator of their sustainedpopularity. From this premise, it can be demonstrated that backgammonsustaineda reputation
as one of the most popular parlor gamesof the British literate classes from the Middle Ages until the latter halfof the 19th century.
Other popular games in Britain duringthis period included Chess, Draughts, (aka Checkers), Dominoes and Whist.
Despite the close proximity of Britainto mainland Europe, documentary evidence suggests that distinct backgammonvariants -
each possessing an idiosyncratic bodyof rules - remained a parochial favorite pastime from the Mediterraneanto Scandinavia.
Throughout the diversity of Europeanculture, specific variants were adopted by the locals as their favoredgame of choice.
Murray(30) notes that around 25 distinctversions of the game were evident throughout Europe during the Middle Ages.Around the
Mediterranean for example, variantsin which the game commenced by 'bearing in' checkers, or in which the gamebegins with all
checkers stacked on the respective'ace-points',became firmly entrenched in the local culture. In France, the cognoscentipreferred
the comparatively complex rules of thebackgammon variant Tric Trac. From the 17th century onwards, the literaryworks of
numerous French authors provided averitablewealth of information on this significant variant.(31)
At the turn of the 3rd millennium, thephenomena of 'standardization' permeates almost every aspect of our dailylives. The printing
revolution facilitated an incrementaladoption of standardized rules throughout societies. As the rules of gamesbecame accurately
enshrined in print, the opportunityfor accidental modification of the rules diminished. The profusion ofprintedmatter on
backgammon served to 'market' the gameto an ever increasing, and more widely distributed audience. A larger,and increasingly
more affluent and literate populationprovided a strong potential readership base to further motivate the nascentpublishing industry.
Dynamism andPopularity
Human nature is not entirely adverseto change. The deliberate modification and evolution of recreational games,to improve upon
the status quo (or merely change forchange sake), has remained a healthy phenomena to the present day.Certainly,slight or even
radical changes to the rules of a gamecan act as an invigorating tonic to revive interest where a game has becomestale through
stasis. For example, it is debatablewhether backgammon would enjoy its present popularity in the 'Western world'were it not for the
innovative introduction of the doublingcube during the 1920's. Perhaps it is no coincidence that around a decadeearlier
Holzhausen(32) professed that the popularlongevity of a board game was dependent on the element of skill involved.For
Holzhausen, a strategy game whose outcomewas dependent on the skill of the players would only survive if the skilllevel necessary
for an opponent to prevail was suchthat only slight errors could lead to the loss of the game. It is arguablethat the introduction of the
doubling cube significantly enhancedthe element of skill in the game so increasing its marketability in anincreasingly competitive
leisure market.
A further factor, which impacts uponthe popularity of a particular game, is the competition posed by similarrecreational pursuits. A
game that is dull or has become staleovertime will inevitably suffer once a more interesting competitor isintroducedto the market.
Newly introduced games may provide agreater challenge, for example requiring a player to master a broader rangeof skills to
prevail over their opponent. New gamesmight also offer a novel sensory stimulus, provide greater thrills throughincreased
opportunities for gambling, or facilitateincreased social interaction by enabling more players to participate inthe proceedings.
From a historical perspective, thepopularityof backgammon in the 'West' has clearly waxed and waned in tune to bothnational and
international developments inrecreationalpursuits.
In 1930, Boyden(33) reflected thatbackgammonwas one of the most fashionable games of England at the end of the 19thCentury,
attributing its popularity to the extantprejudice against card games of that era. The early years of the 20thCenturywitnessed
significant social change in WesternEurope, and during this period the social stigma attached to card gameswere quickly eroded.
With the increased competition fromcard games (particularly Bridge which was rapidly eclipsing the popularityof Whist due to the
increased skill factor), the popularityof backgammon waned significantly. The introduction of the popular orientalparlor game of
Mahjong to Britain around this periodalso impacted negatively upon the popularity of backgammon(34).
Boyden's book is but one example of aswarm of texts published around 1930 by publishing houses hungry tocapitalizeon the
surge in demand for information onbackgammonafter its return to popularity in both the USA and Britain. The numberof
backgammon texts (around 20 titles),(35)published from the late 1920's to the early 1930's almost rivals the halcyondecade of the
1970's in prolificacy. Perhaps it isno coincidence that renewed enthusiasm for the game was immediately precededby the
changes in rules concomitant with theanonymous introduction of the doubling cube to the game.
Table 1 - Historic Distribution of English Language Backgammon Publications. (Note that the 'non-mass media' titles
such as the self published texts of inter alia Danny Kleinman are not included)
A New WorldOrder
The global political turmoil of the 1940'smarked an end to the 'Western' backgammon renaissance of the previousdecade.The
number of new publications graduallytrickled to a halt in the decade following the Second World War. In 1960,Robert Charles Bell
commented that:
"Pamphlets of rules can be bought inthe better games shops in England, but few sell boards or pieces;occasionallythey can be
found in antique shops. The seller maybe unaware of their purpose!".(36)
It is significant to note that 1947 markedthe birth of the 'modern' Pinball machine (a derivative of the 18th centuryFrench game of
Bagatelle) following the addition ofthe 'flipper' by the Gottlieb company.(37) The 1950's and 60's witnesseda massive surge in
popularity of the Pinball gameparticularlyamong the younger generations hungry for new sensory stimuli. Backgammonhad clearly
become stale and largely ignored pastimein the eyes of the young.
Throughout the ages backgammon hasconsistentlyproven to be a fascinating recreational pastime capable of captivatingthe
hearts and minds of generations of casualand serious game enthusiasts. In the 'New World Order' of the post-war20th century the
power of marketing fueled by everincreasingdevelopments in media communications, facilitated a resurgence of interestin the
game from the mid-1960's.
The initial resurgence in the popularityof backgammon in the post-war years has been traced to the efforts of PrinceAlexis
In contemporary times, commentators havecome to regard the 1970's decade as the 'heyday of backgammon'.(38) The
subsequent demise in the game'spopularityin the 'West' may have been partly due to the new competition for ourleisuretime
posed by the nascent video gamesindustry,which offered another new sensory stimuli with Atari's release of the firstcommercially
successful(39) video arcade game'Pong'(40)in 1973. Subsequent whirlwind developments in video technology facilitatedan
onslaught of progressively more popularvideo 'arcade' games spearheaded by the phenomenally popular 'SpaceInvaders'(41)and
'Pac Man'(42) (the most successful videoarcade game of all time) in 1978 and 1980 respectively. Capitalizing uponits success in
the arcades, 'Home Pong',(43) (andboostedby a drop in price of microchips), exploded into the living rooms ofmillionsof baby
boomer consumers in 1974.(44)
The Revelationof Backgammon
The 1980's witnessed a rapid end to the'gammonmania' of the preceding decade. Bower(45) notes that the gamesufferedthe
demise typically associated with a 'fad',as the rapid attrition of players was not replenished with new blood andthe mass media
publicity disappeared. It is highlylikely that backgammon had become a stale game in the eyes of 'X generation'teenagers whose
leisure time was often spent entrenchedin the Video arcades or sat transfixed before their home-video gameconsoles.Despite
backgammon's fall from the limelight,a steady stream of 'academic' texts(46) catered to a niche market ofhardcorebackgammon
enthusiasts throughout the decade andinto the 1990's.
Despite the negative impact of the videogames on the popularity of backgammon, developments in the video gamesindustry were
largely responsible for the widespreadacceptance of computers by the public. The computer age would prove tobe a blessing in
disguise for the popularity of backgammonin the 'West'. Progressively more powerful home computers at increasinglyaffordable
prices engendered a computer literateconsumer base for the burgeoning Information Technology industry. Throughthe maelstrom
of new computer games, (most of whichpassed in and out of vogue in the flash of an eye), traditional board-gamesfound their way
into the new market place to establisha firm foothold in the virtual landscape.
Advances in computing technology such asthe development of 'Artificial Intelligence' paid unexpected dividendsto the
Appendix1: Substantive Backgammon Variants
Although the physical format of the gameis common throughout the world, a multitude of backgammon variants isextant.Such A comprehensive description of the fullpanoply of backgammon variants would fill an entire book and was certainlybeyond the TricTrac;invented in France around 1500.(53) Play commences with 15 checkers stackedon each opponent's ace-point. Though Other noteworthy backgammon variantsinclude inter alia; Domino Gammon; Misere Backgammon (aka Anti-backgammon); Appendix2: Select Bibliography & Further Reading: Articles published on theInternet Chuck Bower, '(20th Century) Historyof Backgammon' published on GammOnline August 1999 edition Michael Crane, 'Tavla in Turkey' (firstpublished in Bibafax No 35, July 1996) reproduced on the Mind SportsOlympiadMindzine at Mark Driver, 'Historic Origins ofBackgammonin Britain, including a Review of Edmond Hoyle's 'A Short Treatise On theGame of Dean Kezan, "Backgammon Game Or...'publishedon Kezan Design homepage at http://www.kezan-design.com/backgammon/
David Levy, 'History of Tric Trac' &Rules of Tric Trac, published on the Tric Trac Homepage athttp://www.best.com/~dlevy/trictrac/
James Masters, 'Backgammon - Historyand Useful Information', published at The Online Guide to Traditional Games Catherine Soubeyrand, 'The Royal Gameof Ur', published at Gamecabinet.comhttp://www.gamecabinet.com/history/Ur.html
Catherine Soubeyrand, 'The Game of Senet',published at Gamecabinet.com http://www.gamecabinet.com/history/Senet.html
Michael Strato, 'History of Backgammon'published at Gammonvillage.com Kit Woolsey, 'Computers and Rollouts'published on GammOnline, January 2000 edition, at 1 Neil Peart - Core Music Publishing1991
Artwork of Senet, Royal Game of Ur and Tabulae, copyright Dean Kezan2000.
Dean's 'Active Backgammon Desktop Theme' honourware can be viewed anddowloadedfrom the following link;
http://www.kezan-design.com/backgammon/theme.htm
variations include major differencesin the initial set up of the checkers (either on or off the board) andthe movement and action of
the checkers throughout their journeyto the bear off. Other minor disparities include the rules governing thephysical etiquette for
casting of the dice and the movementof checkers on the board.
scope of this article. However a briefand select overview of significant variants is provided below:
commences by bearing in checkers intothe respective home boards of each opponent. Checker movement follows anopposing
path as in regular backgammon and Blot may be hit after which they must enter from the bar. Distinct rules applyto the movement
of checkers, and the roll of 2-1 receivesspecial treatment whereby the player is entitled to a complex series ofcombination moves
and a further throw of the dice.
each side's inner boards are diagonallyopposite. All checkers start on the board stacked on the respectiveace-pointsfor each
player, and are raced around 24 pipsto bear off in the respective home-boards for each side. Significantvariationsto the rules of
standard backgammon include: blots cannot be hit and taken to the bar; initial progression of the checkers isrestricted until the first
checker has passed the opponent's'ace-point';and primes are restricted to four points in each player's outer table.(51)
respective ace-points of each playeri.e. both columns will appear either to the right or the left of each playerdepending upon their
perspective). The flow of the checkeraround the board is similar to regular backgammon, however after a hit,blots are not captured
and taken to the bar, rather theyremainedin a state of paralysis until the opponent has removed the attacking checkerfrom the
Point occupied by the blot.(52)
similar to backgammon, Tric Trac isnot fundamentally a racing game, as points are scored for making prescribedplays and
achieving specific positions from thepossible combinations permitted by the throws of the dice. However, theend game is similar
to backgammon in the bear off stage.Checker movement is governed by a number of specialized rules;(54) forexample a checker
may not move to or pass over a pointoccupied by one or more of the opponent's checkers. Games are won by thefirst player to
attain a score of 12 points. A TricTrac match typically consists of twelve games of twelve points.
Nackgammon; and hypergammon.
http://www.gammonline.com/members/Aug99/articles/chuck.htm
http://www.msoworld.com/mindzine/news/classic/bg/tavla.html
Back-Gammon' published atGammonvillage.comhttp://www.gammonvillage.com/news/article_display.cfm?resourceid=433
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/james.masters/TraditionalGames/Backgammon.htm
http://www.gammonvillage.com/news/article_display.cfm?resourceid=38
http://www.gammonline.com/members/Jan00/articles/roll.htm
2 See for example, Stewart Culin, 'Chessand Playing Cards', (Washington, 1898).
3 See for example, Nigel Pennick, 'Gamesof the Gods: The Origin of Board Games in Magic and Divination', (Rider,London,
1988).
4 For a detailed description andillustrationsof these games see for example, Catherine Soubeyrand, 'The Game of Senet',
published at Gamecabinet.com.
5 Conjectural rules for the game ofSenat have been published by: Timothy Kendall, published in Jean MarieLhote, 'Historie des
Juex de Societe', (Flammarion, 1994);and Robert Charles Bell, published in R. C. Bell, 'Board and Table Gamesfrom Many
Civilizations', (Oxford University Press,London, 1960). A summary of the work of Kendall and Bell is reproducedin Soubeyrand,
note 4 above.
6 Sir Leonard Wooley, 'Ur, the firstPhase', (Penguin books, London, 1946), at 35.
7 Conjectural rules for the Royal Gameof Ur have been published by Robert Charles Bell, in R. C. Bell, 'Boardand Table Games',
(Oxford University Publishing, 1969).
8 A leather board dating from themid-secondcentury is housed in the National Museum of Wales.
9 See for example H. J. R., Murray,'A History of Board-Games other than Chess', (Oxford University, ClarendonPress, 1952), at
29.
10 W. B. Emery, 'Nubian Treasure' (London1948), at 20.
11 W. B., Emery, note 10 above, at 46.
12 H. J. R. Murray, note 9 above at24 - 30.
13 H. J. R., Murray, note 9 above, at31.
14 The Epigrams of Agathias of Myrnein the Platine Anthology.
15 H. J. R., Murray, note 9 above, at114.
16 Al-Ya Qubi, 'Manuscript containedin the British Museum - Brit. Mus., Arab. Add. 7515
17 H. J. R. Murray, note 9 above at115.
18 John L. Myres, 'The Dawn of History',(Henry Holt Co., New York, 1911)
19 See for example H. J. R. Murray,note 9 above, especially Chapter 9 - 'The Distribution and Origin of BoardGames'.
20 H. J. R. Murray, 'History of Chess',(Oxford, 1913).
21 See H. J. R. Murray note 9 aboveat 115.
22 Stewart Culin, 'Chinese Games withDice and Dominoes', (Washington 1895), at 80.
23 H. J. R., Murray, note 9 above at122.
24 Oswald Jacoby and John R Crawford,'The Backgammon Book', (Viking Press, New York, 1970, reissued in paperbackby
Bantam Books, New York, 1973).
25 See for examples Jessel, Frederic,'A Bibliography of Works in English on Playing Cards and Gaming', (Longmans,Green, and
Co., London, 1905).
26 James Balmford, 'A Short and PlainDialogue concerning the unlawfulness of Playing at Cards or Tables. (London,1593);
27 Daniel Bellamy, 'Backgammon: or theBattle of the Friars, a Tragic-comic Tale in Verse, to which is added aShort Essay on the
Folly of Gaming, by Way of Application',(J. Wilford, London, 1734).
28 Edmond Hoyle, 'A Short Treatise Onthe Game of Back-Gammon', (Published in Great Britain, printed for: T.Osborne, in Gray's
Inn; J. Hilyard, at York; M. Brysonat Newcastle; and J. Leake, at Bath 1745).
29 Further titles published during theera of the Industrial Revolution include; William Green, 'The BackgammonTeacher: A Treatise
New and Original throughout; to whichis added a familiar exposition of the manner of calculating chances, witha new table of Odds
and a new Code of Laws', (Baldwin andCraddock, London 1819); Frederic Hardy, 'Handbook of Draughts andBackgammon,With
Illustrative Diagrams', (Frederick Warne,London, 1867); George F. Pardon, 'Backgammon: Its History and Practice',(D. Bogue,
London, 1844); George F. Pardon (writingunder the pseudonym 'Captain Rawdon Crawley'), ' A Handbook of Draughts:With a
Chapter on Backgammon', (Routledge,1863); Roy Reuben, 'Roy's Game of Backgammon, wherein the Principles ofthe Game are
explained, and the Directions of thebest Players and Authorities have been compared and revised', (H. K.Causton,London 1848);
H.D. Symonds, 'Backgammon: Rules andDirections for Playing the Game of Backgammon, Illustrated withCalculations,Critical
Cases, and Games', (Lee & HurstLondon, 1798);
30 H J R Murray , note 9 above, at 117- 127.
31 Examples include; Jollivet, Euvertede, sieur de Votilley, 'L'excellent jeu du triquetrac, tres-doux esbates nobles compagnies',
(Guillemot, Paris, 1634); M. j. M.Falavel,'Le jeu du Trictrac, ou les Principes de ce Jeu' (Nyon, Paris, 1776); andN., Guiton, 'Traite
Complet du Jeu de Trictrac', (L. G.Michaud, Paris, 1816). For a comprehensive bibliography of Tric Trac, seeDavid Levy's 'Tric
Trac Home Page'.
32 Freiherr von Holzhausen, 'Handbuchdes Schachspiels', (Leipzig 1912).
33 Elizabeth Boyden, 'The NewBackgammon',(Frederick Warne and Co Ltd, London, 1930).
34 See for example Boyden note 4 above.
35 See for example; Ralph A. Bond,'Beginner'sBook of Modern Backgammon', (Sears Publishing Company, New York, 1930);
Frank Elmer Bruelheide, 'WinningBackgammonat Sight', (Bruce-Roberts, Chicago, 1930); W. D. Eyre, 'Taking Some ofthe Luck
Out of Backgammon', (Ramapo PublishingCo, 1931); Bar Point, 'Backgammon Up To Date: with Thumb Index and 27Diagrams;
An Ideal Reference for Novice or Expert'(de la Rue, 1931); Peter Nicholas Gatsos, 'Modern Backgammon in a Nutshell:
Backgammon as a Military Conflict',(J. Poly & Sons, Cleveland, 1930); Lelia Hattersley, 'How to Play theNew Backgammon',
(Doubleday, Doran & Company, NewYork 1930); R. Hoyle, 'How to Play Backgammon', (Laurie, 1931); JohnLongacre,
'Backgammon of Today', (The John C.Winston Company, Philadelphia, 1930); Georges Mabardi and Clare BootheBrokaw,
'Vanity Fair's Backgammon to Win',(HoraceLiveright, New York, 1930); Grosvenor Nicholas, 'Modern Backgammon', (HenryHolt
and Company, New York, 1928); GrosvenorNicholas and C. Wheaton Vaughan, 'Winning Backgammon: Problems and Answers',
(D. Appleton and Company, New York,1930); Walter L. Richard, 'Complete Backgammon', (Cosmopolitan BookCorporation,New
York, 1931); Oh Tee, 'Backgammon asPlayed in Hollywood', (E. Hays Press, Hollywood, 1930); Harold Thorne,'Backgammon in
20 Minutes', (E. P. Dutton & Co.,New York, 1930); Harold Thorne, 'Backgammon Tactics: Containing 50BackgammonProblems
with Answers & Authorized Laws for1931', (E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1931); William H. Walling andWilliam J. Hiss,
'Backgammon Standards: How to Win atBackgammon', (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1930).
36 R. C. Bell, 'Board and Table Games',Volume 1, (Oxford University Press, London, 1960) at 43.
37 Harry Mabs invented Gottlieb's'FlipperBumpers' in 1947.
38 See for example, Chuck Bower, 'Historyof Backgammon' in Kit Woolsey (ed.) GammOnline (August 1999).
39 The first commercial video arcadegame was 'Computer Space', produced by Nutting Associates in 1971, howeverthe project
was not commercially successful.
40 Invented by Nolan Bushnell in 1972.
41 Taito/Bailey/Midway, 1978.
42 Baily/Midway, 1980.
43 Atari 1974.
44 For a comprehensive overview of thehistory of Video Games, see for example; 'The Dot Eaters: Video Game History101', at
http://www.emuunlim.com/doteaters/
45 Bower, note 33 above.
46 See for example the works of DannyKleinman, Kent Goulding and Bill Robertie.
47 For more detailed information onthe history of backgammon computing see for example; Bower note 37 above;and Kit
Woolsey, 'Computers and Rollouts',publishedon GammOnline January 2000 issue.
48 For example, JellyFish, and Snowie.
49 See H. J. R. Murray note 4 aboveat 129.
50 Boyden, note 33 above, at 93.
51 For further information on Moultezem,see for example; Oswald Jacoby, and John R. Crawford, note 24 above at223 - 225.
52 For further information on Plakoto,see for example Jacoby and Crawford, note 24 above, at 226 to 227.
53 See H. J. R. Murray, note 4 aboveat 124.
54 A comprehensive set of rules forTric Trac is available at David Levy's Tric Trac Homepage,.
